Forensic Biology

Module content

1. Introduction to forensic biology

History and development of forensic biology

Pioneers of forensic biology

Major technological and scientific advances in the field

Importance and applications in criminal investigations

The role of biology in solving crimes

Examples of well-known cases solved through forensic biology

Ethics and professional standards

Ethical principles in collecting and analysing biological evidence

Respect for privacy and individual rights

Biological analysis techniques

Collection, preservation and processing of biological samples

Crime-scene sampling methods

Sample preservation protocols for subsequent analysis

DNA analysis

Principles of PCR, electrophoresis and DNA sequencing

Applications of DNA analysis in criminal investigations

Body fluid analysis

Methods for identifying and characterising biological fluids

Techniques for distinguishing fluid types (blood, saliva, semen and urine)

Identification of fibres, hair and other biological traces

Microscopic and chemical techniques for identifying fibres and hair

Importance of biological traces in reconstructing criminal events

Interpretation of biological evidence

Evaluation and comparison of DNA profiles

Methods for assessing similarity between DNA profiles

Use of genetic databases to identify suspects

Crime-scene examination to recover biological evidence

Techniques for locating and collecting biological evidence at crime scenes

Protocols for avoiding contamination and preserving sample integrity

Specialist applications

Study of carrion-feeding insects in forensic entomology

The role of insects in estimating time of death

Methods for collecting and analysing insects at a crime scene

Analysis of microorganisms in bioterrorism cases

Detection and identification of pathogens in biological samples

Techniques for assessing biological threats and preventing attacks

Detection and analysis of toxins and illicit substances in biological samples

Methods for detecting toxins and drugs in biological samples

Use of chromatography and mass spectrometry to analyse illicit substances

Case studies and practical work

Analysis of simulated crime scenarios

Application of biological analysis techniques at simulated crime scenes

Interpreting evidence and solving fictional investigations

Use of biological analysis techniques on real samples

Laboratory practicals implementing biological analysis techniques

Interpretation of results and preparation of expert reports

Expert reports and expert testimony in court

Writing expert reports based on biological analysis results

Preparation and delivery of expert testimony in court.

Course content

Chapter 1: Introduction to anatomy and physiology

Definitions of anatomy and physiology and the differences between them

Anatomical terminology: planes, axes and positions

Hierarchical organisation of the human body: atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs and systems

Concepts of homeostasis and physiological regulation

Chapter 2: Cells and tissues

Structure and function of human cells

Essential cell organelles

Tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous

Functional role of each tissue in the body

Chapter 3: Integumentary system

Skin structure: epidermis, dermis and hypodermis

Skin appendages: hair, nails, sweat glands and sebaceous glands

Main functions of the skin

Chapter 4: Skeletal system

Bone classification: long, short, flat and irregular bones

Bone anatomy: composition and microscopic structure

Major joints: types and movements

Introduction to myology: striated, smooth and cardiac muscles

Chapter 5: Muscular system

Gross anatomy of skeletal muscles

Mechanisms of muscle contraction

Role of muscles in movement and posture

Chapter 6: Introduction to the nervous system

General organisation: central and peripheral nervous systems

Neurons and glial cells: structure and function

Transmission of nerve impulses

Chapter 7: Sense organs

Structure and function of the eye

Ear anatomy and mechanisms of hearing

Taste and smell

Chapter 8: Introduction to the digestive and urinary systems

General anatomy of the digestive tract

Main functions

Kidney anatomy and role in homeostasis

Course content:

Introduction to molecular biology

Definition

Historical background

The central dogma of molecular biology

Structure of nucleic acids

1. Chemical components of nucleic acids

1.1. Nitrogenous bases

1.2. Pentoses

1.3. The phosphate group

2. Nucleosides and nucleotides

2.1. The N-glycosidic bond and the resulting nucleosides

2.2. The phosphoester bond

2.3. The pyrophosphate bond

2.4. Nomenclature

3. Nucleotide polymerisation

3.1. Phosphodiester bonds and formation of nucleotide polymers

3.2. Notation conventions

4. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

4.1. DNA structure

4.2. Characteristics of the double helix

4.3. Physicochemical properties of DNA

4.4. Three-dimensional structure, compaction and higher-order organisation

5. Ribonucleic acids (RNA)

5.1. Structure and characteristics of ribonucleic acids

5.2. Types of ribonucleic acids: synthesis and function

6. Nucleic acid manipulation

Exonucleases and restriction endonucleases.

Genome and gene organisation

Definitions

Genome organisation

2.1. Genome content

2.2. Genome variability

2.3. Similarities between genomes

2.4. Prokaryotic genomes

Chromosomal DNA

Extrachromosomal DNA: plasmids

2.5. Eukaryotic genomes

Heterogeneity of DNA sequences

Highly repetitive DNA

Moderately repetitive DNA

Non-repetitive DNA

Mitochondrial DNA

2.6. Genome plasticity and transposable elements

Gene organisation

3.1. In prokaryotes

3.2. In eukaryotes

3.3. Types of genes

Single-copy genes; structural genes, regulatory genes, pseudogenes and housekeeping genes.

Gene families and superfamilies: homologues, paralogues, orthologues and xenologues

DNA replication

Overview

Fundamental principles of replication

2.1. Semiconservative replication

2.2. Origin of replication

2.3. Bidirectional replication

2.4. Unidirectional polymerisation

2.5. Semidiscontinuous replication

2.6. RNA primer

Replication enzymes

3.1. Helicases

3.2. Topoisomerases

3.3. Primase

3.4. DNA polymerases

3.5. DNA ligase

Replication proteins

Replication in prokaryotes

5.1. Proteins involved

5.2. Replication origins and termination in E. coli

5.3. Stages of prokaryotic replication

5.4. Regulation of replication in E. coli

Replication in eukaryotes

6.1. Eukaryotic DNA polymerases

6.2. Telomeres and telomerases

Histones and replication

Replication of retroviral genetic material

Variation and maintenance of genetic material

Introduction

DNA damage

Endogenous damage

Replication errors

Tautomerisation

Depurination and depyrimidination

Deamination

Methylation errors

Damage caused by exogenous agents

Damage caused by physical mutagens

Damage caused by chemical mutagens

Prevention

Cellular responses to DNA damage

DNA repair

Immediate repair

Repair during replication

Direct reversal by photolyases

Direct reversal by alkyltransferases

Secondary repair

Base excision repair (BER)

Nucleotide excision repair (NER)

Mismatch repair

Repair of breaks by recombination

The SOS response in E. coli

Defects in repair systems: selected examples

Genetic variation

Types of point mutations

Classification by the nature of the mutation

Substitution, deletion and insertion mutations

Classification by the consequence of the mutation

Missense, nonsense, silent and frameshift mutations

DNA transcription

Overview

The transcription unit

Template strand and coding strand

Transcription in prokaryotes

Initiation

Elongation

Termination

Rho-dependent termination

Rho-independent termination

Processing of primary transcripts

Transcription in eukaryotes

Distinctive features of eukaryotic transcription

Eukaryotic RNA polymerases

The protein complex required for transcription

Eukaryotic promoters

Initiation

Elongation

Termination

Post-transcriptional mRNA processing in eukaryotes

Capping

Polyadenylation

Splicing

Translation

The genetic code

Components of the translation machinery

2.1. Ribosomes: synthesis, structure and function

2.2. tRNA: structure and role; aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases

a) Structure of tRNAs and isoacceptor tRNAs

b) Amino acid loading onto tRNA

Stages of prokaryotic translation

3.1. Initiation

3.2. Elongation

a. Coupling reaction

b. Peptide bond formation and release of the first tRNA

c. Translocation

3.3. Termination

Distinctive features of eukaryotic translation

Post-translational modifications

A. Definitions and examples

B. Phosphorylation

C. Histone acetylation and methylation

D. p53 acetylation

Introduction to applications of artificial intelligence in molecular biology

Definition of AI and key concepts: algorithms, machine learning and deep learning

Introduction to biological databases: NCBI, Ensembl and UniProt

Introduction to BLAST, Clustal Omega and AlphaFold

Introduction to AI applications in DNA/RNA sequence analysis: multiple sequence alignment and secondary structure prediction

Introduction to computational and AI-based genome annotation tools, including DeepGene and GeneMark

AI for promoter and alternative splicing prediction

Protein structure modelling, active-site prediction and simulation of translation

Tutorials:

Tutorial 01: Structure of nucleic acids

Tutorial 02: Genome and gene organisation

Tutorial 03: DNA replication

Tutorial 04: Variation and maintenance of genetic material

Tutorial 05: DNA transcription

Tutorial 06: mRNA translation

Tutorial 07: AI applications in molecular biology

Introduction to biological databases, bioinformatics tools and AI: BLAST, Ensembl and AlphaFold

Classifying sequences by similarity

Using a simple AI-assisted alignment tool

Basic demonstration of a supervised learning algorithm, such as a decision tree for classifying mutations as benign or pathogenic

Predicting RNA and protein structures with online AI tools

Course content

Introduction to analytical chemistry

Definitions and basic concepts in analytical chemistry.

Classification of analytical methods and their applications in different fields.

Importance of precision, sensitivity and selectivity in chemical analysis.

Solution chemistry

Solution theory: mass concentration, molar concentration and molality.

Influence of factors such as temperature, pressure and pH on reactions in solution.

Techniques for preparing, diluting and standardizing solutions.

Chemical equilibria

Principles of chemical equilibria: solubility product, acid dissociation constant and base dissociation constant.

Factors affecting chemical equilibria and shifts in equilibrium.

Application of chemical equilibria to precipitation and complexation reactions.

Volumetric analysis

Titration techniques: acid–base, redox and complexometric titration.

Use of colour indicators and methods for detecting equivalence points.

Calculations of concentrations and volumes at equivalence.

Instrumental analysis

Introduction to instrumental analysis techniques: spectroscopy, chromatography and electrochemistry.

Operating principles of modern analytical instruments and applications in chemical analysis.

Chromatography

Principles of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography (GC).

Separation of compounds according to their interactions with the stationary phase.

Interpretation of chromatograms and quantification of analytes.

Spectroscopy

Principles of UV–Vis, IR and NMR spectroscopy.

Interaction of light with matter and information provided by spectra.

Use of spectroscopy for qualitative identification and quantification of compounds.

Electrochemistry

Principles of electrochemistry and electrochemical techniques such as voltammetry and polarography.

Measurement of electrochemical quantities and applications in chemical substance analysis.

Analytical data processing

Statistical methods for data analysis: means, standard deviations and confidence intervals.

Assessing the reliability of analytical results, estimating uncertainties and writing analytical reports.

Applications of analytical chemistry

Use of analytical chemistry in various fields: industrial quality control, environmental monitoring, food and pharmaceutical analysis, etc.

Recent developments and future prospects in analytical chemistry.

Course content

Workshop 1: Genomic DNA extraction

Extraction of genomic DNA from:

Blood

Saliva

Semen

Hair

Skin

Teeth; bones

Other sample types

Animal tissue

Plant tissue

Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria

Fungi

Viruses

Workshop 2: RNA extraction

Workshop 3: Nucleic acid quantification, quality control and separation

Nucleic acid quantification by spectrophotometry

Agarose gel electrophoresis

Workshop 4: Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

Short tandem repeat PCR (STR-PCR)

Real-time and quantitative PCR

Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)

Course content

Workshop 1: Electrochemistry and electroanalytical methods

Workshop 2: UV–Vis and IR spectroscopy

Workshop 3: High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

Workshop 4: Mass spectrometry (MS)

Workshop 5: Validation methods and quality assurance

Course content

Chapter 1: General introduction to criminal law

Definition and scope of criminal law

Functions of criminal law

Sources of criminal law

Fundamental principles

Connection with forensic science

Chapter 2: Criminal offences

Classification of offences

Constituent elements of an offence

Legal element: the act must be prohibited by law.

Material element: a factually established act or omission.

Mental element: criminal intent or fault.

Attempt and complicity

Criminal liability

Connection with forensic biology

Chapter 3: Criminal penalties

Types of penalties

Objectives of penalties

Enforcement and limitation periods for penalties

Chapter 4: Introduction to criminal procedure

Definition and purpose

Fundamental principles

Participants in the proceedings

Connection with forensic science

The key role of forensic biology experts during inquiries and judicial investigations.

Chapter 5: Stages of criminal procedure

Preliminary inquiry

Pre-trial judicial investigation

Trial

Appeals and other remedies

Chapter 6: Criminal evidence and the role of the forensic biology expert: theoretical aspects

Concept and importance of evidence in criminal law

Forms of evidence

Role of the forensic biology expert

Identification and collection of biological traces: blood, semen, saliva and hair.

Maintaining the chain of custody to ensure the integrity of evidence.

DNA analysis and genetic profiling for individual identification.

Writing expert reports and giving evidence in court.

Connection with criminal procedure

Chapter 7: Rights of victims and rights of the defence

Fundamental rights of victims

Rights of the defence

Course content

Part 1: Literature Searching and Scientific Writing

Introduction to scientific research

Types of documents and scientific literature

Evolution of research methods

Open science and open access

Research methodology: advanced approaches

Defining the study question using PICO and 3QPOC

Selecting search tools: catalogues and multidisciplinary and specialist databases

Using specialist search engines and full-text platforms

Optimising and using search results

Assessing the relevance of sources

Reliability, currency and accuracy of information

Reference management and bibliographic software, including EndNote, Zotero and Mendeley

Modern scientific writing

Analysing papers and preparing reports

Writing a final-year dissertation

Writing scientific papers and conference contributions

Part 2: Scientific Communication and Knowledge Dissemination

Issues and purposes of scientific communication

Why and how should science be communicated?

Modern strategies and techniques for written and oral expression

Scientific interactions and exchanges in academic settings

How scientific exchanges work

Presenting and promoting research

Using digital tools to improve visibility

Open science and public science communication

Strategies for reaching the general public

Use of digital media and new technologies

Interaction with the press and media

Course content

Unit 1: Tell us about yourself

Grammar: Tenses (present, past, future). Question forms (where, what, who, why, how much).

Vocabulary: words with more than one meaning.

Reading: Cell communication.

Speaking: students of ESSBO talking about each other.

Listening: Listening to a scientist speaking about his/her career.

Writing: Informal letter.

Unit 2: The way we live

Grammar: Present tenses: present simple, present continuous.

Vocabulary: At the laboratory.

Reading: Living in Oran.

Speaking: Share with us your experience about living on campus.

Listening: Student life at other universities.

Writing: Transition (linking words).

Unit 3: Biologist from the past

Grammar: Past tenses: past simple, past continuous.

Vocabulary: Time expressions.

Reading: DNA fingerprinting in forensic science

Speaking: Telling the story of a scientific discovery or famous criminal case involving biology

Listening: Rosalind Franklin and the discovery of DNA

Writing: write a short story about your favourite scientist.

Unit 4: Let’s explore the biology lab

Grammar: Much / Many, Some / Any

Vocabulary: Laboratory tools and biological products

Reading: Scientific supply chains – from biomolecules to lab benches

Speaking: Talking about materials and substances used in the lab

Listening: Visiting a forensic biology lab – what do scientists need?

Writing: Write a short paragraph describing essential biomolecules used in DNA analysis or other forensic tests

Unit 5: What do you want to do?

Grammar: Verb patterns, Expressing intentions

Vocabulary: Have, go, come.

Reading: what a DNA polymerase can do

Speaking: what are your plans?

Listening: Evolution of using DNA testing to solve crimes

- Write a short report describing how a specific enzyme (e.g. DNA polymerase) is used in forensic analysis.

Course content

Chapter 1: Introduction to brain chemistry

Chemical composition of the brain.

Fundamental concepts of neuronal biochemistry.

Chemical versus electrical synapses.

Chapter 2: Neurotransmitter structure and function

Classification of neurotransmitters.

Synthesis, storage and release.

Reuptake and degradation mechanisms.

Chapter 3: Excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters

Glutamate and GABA: roles in the excitation–inhibition balance.

Effects on behaviour and cognition.

Chapter 4: The dopaminergic system and behaviour

Dopamine in motivation, reward and addiction.

Dopamine and impulsive/aggressive behaviours.

Chapter 5: The serotonergic system and emotional regulation

Serotonin in mood and anxiety.

Involvement in behavioural disorders.

Chapter 6: Noradrenaline and the stress response

Neurochemical mechanisms of stress.

Effects on decision-making and aggression.

Chapter 7: Neurohormones and social modulation

Oxytocin, vasopressin and social behaviours.

Neurochemistry of empathy and trust.

Chapter 8: Neuroendocrine interactions in brain chemistry

Influence of steroid hormones, including testosterone and oestrogens, on neurotransmission.

Effects on sexual and aggressive behaviours.

Chapter 9: Neurochemical alterations associated with criminal behaviours

Neurochemical imbalances and propensity for violence.

Studies of neurochemical biomarkers in forensic science.

Chapter 10: Effects of psychoactive substances on brain chemistry

Illicit drugs, medicines and neurochemical disturbances.

Influence on the commission of criminal acts.

Chapter 11: Toxicological foundations of forensic neurochemistry

Analysis of neuroactive substances in medicolegal assessments.

Detection techniques and interpretation of results.

Chapter 12: Perspectives and limitations of neurochemistry in forensic biology

Current and future applications.

Ethical and scientific issues.

Multidisciplinary integration in criminal expert assessments.

Course content

Chapter 1: Peripheral and autonomic nervous systems

Cranial and spinal nerves: structure and functions

Reflexes and reflex arcs

Autonomic nervous system: sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

Chapter 2: Endocrine system

Main endocrine glands and their hormones

Mechanisms of hormone action

Hormonal regulation and feedback

Chapter 3: Cardiovascular system

Heart anatomy: chambers, valves and blood circulation

Cardiac cycle and electrophysiology

Blood vessels: arteries, veins and capillaries

Blood pressure and its regulation

Chapter 4: Lymphatic and immune systems

Anatomy of lymphatic vessels and nodes

Functions of the lymphatic system

Principles of innate and adaptive immunity

Chapter 5: Respiratory system

Anatomy of the upper and lower respiratory tracts

Mechanics of breathing

Gas exchange in pulmonary alveoli

Chapter 6: Advanced study of the digestive system

Detailed anatomy of digestive organs

Digestion, absorption and motility

Chapter 7: Advanced study of the urinary system

Anatomy of the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra

Renal function: filtration, reabsorption and secretion

Water and electrolyte regulation

Chapter 8: Reproductive system

Anatomy of the male and female reproductive systems

Physiological functions and cycles

Chapter 9: Metabolism and body temperature regulation

Concepts of basal metabolism

Thermoregulation and associated mechanisms

Course content

Chapter 1: Definitions and scope

Concept and scope of environmental crime.

Types: pollution, deforestation, wildlife trafficking and illegal fishing.

Chapter 2: Global ecological impacts

Effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Threats: climate change, desertification and ocean acidification.

Chapter 3: Pollution and environmental degradation

Air, water and soil pollution: sources, heavy metals and endocrine disruptors.

Habitat alteration: reef collapse and tropical deforestation.

Chapter 4: Species trafficking and illegal exploitation

Poaching and trafficking: threatened species and medicinal plants.

Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and marine discharges of hydrocarbons and plastics.

Chapter 5: Ecological monitoring tools

Bioindicators: macroinvertebrates and diatoms.

Environmental DNA (eDNA): principles and applications in tracing offences.

Technologies: drones, sensors and satellite imagery.

Chapter 6: Environmental influences on crime

Influences on behaviour: pollution, urban stress, noise pollution and climate.

Case studies: post-disaster violence and climate migration.

Chapter 7: International and national legal framework

Key conventions: CITES, the Paris Agreement and the Kyoto Protocol.

Algerian legislation: responsibilities, penalties and the role of NGOs.

Chapter 8: Environmental forensic taphonomy

Abiotic factors: temperature, humidity and soil pH.

Biota: insects, microbes and algae affecting decomposition and DNA integrity.

Sampling protocols: adaptation to natural environments, including wetlands and deserts.

Chapter 9: Microbiological crime and bioterrorism

Pathogen detection: PCR and MALDI-TOF.

Microbiome-based PMI estimation: uses and limitations.

Chapter 10: Environmental forensic toxicology

Pollutant screening: GC-MS and LC-MS/MS.

Ecotoxicology: effects on the food chain.

Chapter 11: Prevention and sustainable management

Public policies: protected areas and no-treatment zones.

Biotechnologies: phytoremediation and pollutant-removing bacteria.

Chapter 12: Environmental conflicts and food security

Overexploitation: fisheries crises and forest resources.

Migration and security: demographic pressures and access to water.

Chapter 13: Synthesis and perspectives

Cross-cutting review of offences and forensic methods.

Innovations: AI for discharge detection and blockchain for traceability.

Course content

Chapter 1 – Introduction to analytical chemistry

Definition and objectives of analytical chemistry.

Overview of the discipline's fundamental principles.

Importance of analytical chemistry in fields such as industry, health and the environment.

History of analytical chemistry.

Evolution of analytical techniques and methods over time.

Contributions of various scientists to the advancement of the discipline.

Chapter 2 – Sampling and sample preparation methods

Principles of sampling.

Sampling techniques for different types of matrices: liquids, solids and gases.

Factors to consider during sampling to ensure sample representativeness.

Sample preparation.

Preparation techniques for qualitative and quantitative analysis.

Extraction, purification and concentration of analytes.

Chapter 3 – Qualitative analysis techniques

Qualitative chemical analysis.

Principles of different qualitative analysis methods: gravimetric, volumetric and spectroscopic.

Identification of ions and inorganic compounds.

Spectroscopy.

Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS).

Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES).

Molecular absorption spectroscopy: UV–Vis and IR.

Chapter 4 – Quantitative analysis techniques

Quantitative chemical analysis.

Principles of quantitative methods: titration, gravimetry and spectroscopy.

Determination of analyte concentrations and amounts.

Chromatography.

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).

Gas chromatography (GC).

Supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC).

Chapter 5 – Advanced instrumental methods

Mass spectrometry.

Operating principles of mass spectrometry.

Applications in analytical chemistry for compound identification and quantification.

Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS).

Techniques for analysing metals and trace elements.

Applications in the environment, food and health.

Chapter 6 – Analytical method validation

Analytical method validation.

Validation criteria: sensitivity, specificity, linearity, precision and accuracy.

Stages of method validation.

Quality control.

Use of standards and reference materials.

Quality assurance and internal control of analytical results.

Chapter 7 – Applications in industry and research

Industrial applications.

Use of analytical chemistry in the pharmaceutical, food, cosmetics and petrochemical industries, etc.

Quality control and regulatory requirements.

Research applications.

Contributions of analytical chemistry to scientific research.

Development of new analytical methods and techniques.

Chapter 8 – Practical work and case studies

Laboratory practical work.

Experiments to implement analytical techniques.

Interpretation of results and report writing.

Case studies and problem solving.

Analysis of real situations encountered in analytical chemistry.

Development of analytical problem-solving skills.

Course content

Practical 1: Introduction to forensic biology and management of biological evidence at crime scenes

Biosafety, sampling and chain of custody

Field equipment and protocol

Practical 2: Collection and packaging of biological samples

Blood, saliva, hair and secretions

Sampling materials and preservation

Practical 3: Techniques for detecting latent blood traces

Luminol, Bluestar and the Kastle–Meyer test

Precautions and limitations of interpretation

Practical 4: ABO blood typing and preliminary tests

Antigen–antibody reactions

Forensic applications

Practical 5: DNA extraction from biological samples

Manual and semi-automated methods

Course content

Workshop 1: Solution preparation

Review of concentration expressions (molarity, molality, normality, dilution, etc.)

Buffers (preparation, pKa, buffer selection, etc.)

Basic laboratory handling: glassware, volumes and pipetting

Workshop 2: Protein precipitation methods

Effect of pH (pI)

Salt precipitation (salting-out)

Solvent precipitation (ethanol)

Workshop 3: Protein quantification by spectrophotometric methods

Lowry method

Bradford method

Workshop 4: Size-exclusion chromatography

Demonstration by separating coloured molecules (dextran blue / fluorescein)

Application to protein purification

Spectrophotometric analysis of collected fractions

Workshop 5: Ion-exchange chromatography

Application to whey protein purification

Spectrophotometric analysis of collected fractions

Affinity chromatography (IMAC: theoretical teaching)

Workshop 6: Protein electrophoresis under denaturing conditions: SDS-PAGE

Tricine-SDS-PAGE (peptide electrophoresis: theoretical teaching)

Course content

Chapter 1: The classical school: eighteenth to early nineteenth century

Historical context: the Enlightenment and the revolution in ideas.

Cesare Beccaria and individual responsibility.

Jeremy Bentham and the principle of utilitarianism.

Proportional punishment, free will and rational choice.

Chapter 2: The positivist school: nineteenth century

Break with the classical school: biological and social determinism.

Cesare Lombroso and criminal atavism.

Enrico Ferri and the social environment.

Rafael Garofalo and the concept of dangerousness.

Critical appraisal.

Chapter 3: Psychological theories of crime

Psychoanalytic approaches: Freud and the concepts of id, ego and superego.

Behavioural and cognitive approaches.

Personality disorders: sociopathy and psychopathy.

Chapter 4: Anomie theory

Émile Durkheim: social anomie and suicide.

Robert K. Merton: strain theory and deviant adaptations.

Application to modern societies.

Chapter 5: Social disorganization theories

The Chicago school: urban context and crime.

Shaw and McKay: urban crime areas.

Impact of social mobility and community ties.

Chapter 6: Differential learning theory

Edwin Sutherland: crime as learned behaviour.

Principles of differential association.

Legacies and criticisms.

Chapter 7: Social control theories

Travis Hirschi: social bond theory.

Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi: self-control theory.

Crime and weak social bonds.

Chapter 8: Critical theories of criminology

Marxist criminology: economic inequalities and crime.

Feminist theories: gender and criminal justice.

Green criminology: environmental crime.

Chapter 9: Criminology and forensic justice

Application of theories to criminal investigation.

Criminal profiling and construction of typologies.

Limitations and usefulness in forensic investigations.

Chapter 10: Contemporary reflections

New fields of investigation: cybercrime, environmental crime and terrorism.

The need for theories adapted to twenty-first-century realities.

Synthesis.

Course content

Introduction to forensic botany:

Definition of forensic botany and its importance in criminal investigations

History and development of the discipline

Analytical methods in forensic botany:

Collection and preservation of botanical samples at crime scenes

Plant identification techniques, including identification keys, microscopy and molecular biology

Use of plants in criminal investigations:

Plant decomposition as an indicator of the chronology of events

Vegetation analysis to determine the location of death or evidence deposition

Forensic palynology:

Analysis of pollen and spores to trace the movements of suspects or victims

Use of palynology to date samples and reconstruct crime scenes

Plant-associated forensic entomology:

Study of insects associated with decomposing plants

Use of insects to estimate the interval since death or deposition of a body

Practical applications and case studies:

Analysis of real cases in which forensic botany played a crucial role in resolving criminal investigations

Study of hypothetical scenarios illustrating potential applications of forensic botany

Recent developments and future trends:

New technologies and advances in forensic botany

Challenges and opportunities for applying forensic botany in criminal justice

Course content

Unit 1: Tell me what’s it like

Grammar: What it's like to? Comparative and superlative adjectives in biology.

Vocabulary: Talking about modern life and crimes!.

Reading: A story of two plants or insects in forensic investigations" - Forensic use of plants / insects in criminal cases.

Speaking: Comparing different forensic applications of plants / insects

Listening: How insects and plants are used in forensic investigations.

Writing: Describing a crime scene where plant or insect evidence plays a key role.

Unit 2: Asking scientific questions

Grammar: Present perfect and past simple in scientific writing.

Vocabulary: Adverbs in experimental protocols (slowly, carefully…).

Reading: scientist interview

Speaking: questionnaire for research.

Listening: Interview with a forensic biologist

Writing: writing a research protocol.

Unit 3: Do and don’t in the science Lab

Grammar: Have to, got to, should, must.

Vocabulary: Science laboratory safety symbols and hazard signs.

Reading: How biologists ensure safety in criminal investigations through lab protocols

Speaking: Do I need to be good at math to excel in biology? One question, many answers.

Listening: Fire safety in the Lab.

Writing: Should I have good mathematical and statistical skills? (Argument essay).

Unit 4: Inventions that changed the world

Grammar: Passive voice.

Vocabulary: past participle verbs used in scientific writing

Reading: The Role of DNA Analysis in Forensic Science

Speaking: Passive voice battleship.

Listening: How molecular biology revolutionized criminal investigations

Writing: Write a review of a documentary about how scientific police solve crimes

Module content

Chapter 1 — Introduction to forensic psychopathology

Definitions and scope: psychopathology, crime and the relationship between mental disorders and criminal acts

History and development: from early medicolegal treatises to the emergence of forensic psychiatry

The expert’s role: psychologists and psychiatrists in the justice system; ethical and professional boundaries

Chapter 2 — Explanatory models of offending

The biopsychosocial model: interactions between genes, neurobiology and environment

Neurobiology of aggression: limbic and prefrontal circuits and the roles of dopamine and serotonin

Psychosocial factors: attachment, early trauma, family and peer influences

Chapter 3 — Personality disorders and crime

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD): DSM-5 criteria and behaviours violating others’ rights

Psychopathy: the Cleckley/Hare construct and PCL-R assessment

Epidemiology: prevalence of ASPD versus psychopathy in the general population and prisons

Chapter 4 — Other personality disorders (Cluster B)

Narcissistic personality: grandiosity, need for admiration and lack of empathy

Borderline personality: emotional instability, impulsivity and suicide risk

Histrionic personality: attention-seeking, theatricality and seductiveness as a manipulation strategy, as listed in the programme

Chapter 5 — Substance use disorders

Addiction in criminal contexts: the role of stimulants, depressants and hallucinogens in disinhibition

Psychiatric comorbidities: ASPD and substance dependence; impact on reoffending

Specific assessments: biological tests and motivational interviewing

Chapter 6 — Trauma, post-traumatic stress and aggression

PTSD: intrusive symptoms, avoidance and hyperarousal

Complex trauma: child maltreatment, intimate partner violence and links with offending

Therapeutic approaches: EMDR and trauma-focused CBT

Chapter 7 — Psychoses and criminal acts

Schizophrenia and delusional disorders: persecutory delusions and command hallucinations

Associations with crime: statistical studies, comorbidities, substance use and social exclusion

Mental disorder and criminal responsibility: the legal criteria cited in the programme (Article 122-1 of the French Penal Code) and forensic psychiatric assessment

Chapter 8 — Sexual offending and psychopathology

Categories listed in the programme: paedophilia, exhibitionism and fetishism

Chapter 9 — Forensic clinical assessment

Semi-structured interview (SCID-5-CV): differential diagnosis and clinical case formulation

Scales and projective tests: MMPI-2, Rorschach and legal implications

Uses and limitations: inter-rater reliability and cultural bias

Chapter 10 — Criminal profiling and neuroscience

Foundations of profiling: inductive versus deductive methods (FBI and IP)

Contributions of brain imaging: fMRI and PET in studying violent tendencies

Ethics and validity: controversies surrounding biological determinism

Chapter 11 — Risk management and security measures

Reoffending and unpredictability: false-positive rates and estimates of future violence

Management programmes: GPS monitoring, day centres and involuntary hospitalisation

Standards and recommendations: the reference named “Hagellande” in the programme, NICE (UK) and the French National Authority for Health

Chapter 12 — Victimology and post-offence impact

Victim responses: post-traumatic stress and the Stockholm syndrome mentioned in the programme

Medicolegal assessment: comparison of testimony with evidence and reliability of memories

Protection and follow-up: psychological care and legal arrangements (VOA and compensation)

Chapter 13 — Therapeutic interventions and rehabilitation

Multimodal approaches: CBT, group therapies and family interventions

Specific programmes: conflict resolution and impulse management

Effectiveness assessment: reoffending indicators and quality of life after release

Chapter 14 — Case studies and simulated expert assessment

Analysis of well-known cases: Manson, Dahmer and Anders Breivik

Expert report writing: structure, clarity and scientific argumentation

Simulated oral testimony: a workshop giving evidence before a mock jury and managing cross-examination

Course content

Chapter 1: Introduction and history

Definition and scope.

From medieval observations to modern protocols.

Applications: PMI, location, entomotoxicology and food safety.

Bodies named in the programme: AFQSE, AAFS and international standards.

Chapter 2: External anatomy and morphology

Head: antennae, mouthparts and Calliphoridae/Sarcophagidae distinctions.

Thorax: segmentation, wing and leg types, necrophagous adaptations.

Abdomen: respiratory spiracles in larvae.

Larval morphology: spicules, setae and identification criteria.

Chapter 3: Life cycle and development

Egg, L1–L3 larvae, pupa and adult, with indicative durations.

Abiotic effects: temperature and Van ’t Hoff relationship, humidity and substrate.

Accumulated degree-hours ADH and degree-days ADD: calculations and PMI use.

Interspecies variability: Chrysomya versus Lucilia spp.

Chapter 4: Reproduction and communication

Mating behaviour and locating oviposition sites.

Pheromone chemistry, dispersal and attraction.

Site selection: necrotic tissue preferences and olfactory factors.

Multimodal signals: vibration and temperature.

Chapter 5: Feeding, nutrition and succession

Primary and secondary necrophagy.

Fresh, putrefaction and fermentation phases with successive communities.

Competition between larvae and predation attributed to Dermestidae in the source.

Standardised succession models versus urban settings.

Chapter 6: Systematics and taxonomy

Morphological keys: Byrd & Castner (2001).

Diagnostic genitalia and cuticular microstructures.

COI sequencing and BOLD barcoding.

Morphology–genomics integration and rapid phylogenetics.

Chapter 7: Scene collection

Forceps, entomological aspirators and traps.

Fixed sampling locations and temporal sampling.

Preservation stated in the programme: 70% ethanol, storage at 4 °C, labelling and chain of custody CoC.

Safety and contamination control: protection and sterility.

Chapter 8: Rearing and experimentation

Rearing substrates, containers and controlled conditions.

Hourly records and growth curves.

Larval sampling for analysis under the source’s ablation-technique heading.

Simulated temperature fluctuations.

Chapter 9: PMI estimation

Static methods: age of the oldest larva.

Dynamic methods: Bayesian modelling in R.

Uncertainty and validation: bootstrap and Bayesian credible intervals.

Simulated scenarios versus real data.

Chapter 10: Entomotoxicology

Insects as a matrix for drug/poison detection.

Extraction: lysis and purification.

GC-MS, immunoassays and LC-MS.

Dose–response interpretation and developmental effects.

Chapter 11: Climate and spatial data

Climate effects on development and PMI.

GIS modelling of necrophagous species distributions.

Extreme scenarios: drought and flooding.

Evolutionary adaptation and invasive species.

Chapter 12: Admissibility and expert reporting

Daubert and Frye admissibility criteria in jurisdictions applying them.

IMRaD structure, appendices and scientific rigour.

Testimony preparation and cross-examination.

Evidence management and complete chain of custody.

Chapter 13: Ethics and professional conduct

Human sampling: consent and applicable law.

Impartiality, conflicts of interest and funding.

Sampling effects on biodiversity and conservation.

Confidentiality of sensitive investigation data.

Chapter 14: Innovations and prospects

3D imaging and drones for automated scene-data collection.

Omics and metagenomics for simultaneous community detection.

AI for species recognition and PMI prediction.

International law, bioethics and global collaboration challenges.

Course content

Part 1: RNA interference

1/ History and fundamental mechanisms of RNA interference

1. History of RNA interference

2. Fundamental mechanisms of RNA interference

2.1. Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs)

2.1.1. Biosynthesis

2.1.2. Mechanism of action

2.2. MicroRNAs (miRNAs)

2.2.1. Biosynthesis

2.2.2. Mechanism of action

2.3. PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs)

2.3.1. Biosynthesis

2.3.2. Mechanism of action

II/ Practical implications for siRNA design

1. Influence of the intrinsic properties of siRNA

2. Constraints imposed by the target transcript

III/ Significance of RNA interference

1. A tool for understanding gene function

2. A tool for numerous therapeutic applications

IV/ Constraints associated with transfection of short nucleic acid sequences

1. Stability of interfering RNAs

2. Biodistribution

Part 2: Regulation of gene expression

Regulation of transcription

Regulation of transcription in prokaryotes

What is an operon?

An inducible catabolic operon under negative and positive regulation: the E. coli lactose operon

A repressible anabolic operon: the E. coli tryptophan operon

Regulation by conversion of a repressor into an activator: the E. coli arabinose operon (araBAD)

Other examples of operons

Regulation of open-complex formation

Regulation of the transition to elongation

Regulation of transcription in eukaryotes

Regulation at the chromatin level

Histone acetylation and methylation

DNA methylation

Transcriptional regulatory elements

Classes of transcriptional regulators

How transcriptional activator proteins function

Transcriptional repressors

Enhancer and silencer regulatory sequences

Gene silencing and epigenetic regulation

Post-transcriptional regulation in eukaryotes

Alternative splicing

Regulation by small RNAs

Regulation of mRNA stability in eubacteria

Components involved in degradation

Exoribonucleases

Endoribonucleases

RNA pyrophosphohydrolase (RppH)

Mechanisms of mRNA degradation

The direct-access pathway

The 5′-end-dependent pathway

The 3′ exoribonucleolytic pathway

Mechanisms regulating mRNA stability

Regulation of RNase activity and concentration

Effects of translation

RNA-mediated interference

Influence of the mRNA sequence

Regulation of mRNA stability in eukaryotes

Components involved in degradation

Exoribonucleases acting at the 3′ end of mRNA

Exoribonucleases acting at the 5′ end of mRNA

Endoribonucleases

Degradation mechanisms

The major pathway

Alternative pathways

Mechanisms regulating mRNA stability

The Lsm1–7 complex

Regulation of deadenylation

Regulation of the decapping complex

Interfering RNAs: miRNAs, siRNAs and piRNAs

Regulation of translation

Introduction

Regulation of translation initiation in eubacteria

Regulation of access to the ribosome-binding site (RBS)

Regulation through mRNA secondary structures

Regulation of translation initiation in eukaryotes

Regulation through translation initiation factors

Phosphorylation of initiation factor eIF2

Phosphorylation of 4E-BP proteins and availability of initiation factor eIF4E

Inhibition of initiation by miRNAs

Regulation through the 5′- and 3′-untranslated regions (UTRs) in eukaryotes

Regulation through 5′-UTRs

Interaction between 3′- and 5′-UTRs

Regulation through the 3′-UTR

Alternative initiation pathways

Upstream open reading frames (uORFs)

Initiation through an internal ribosome entry site (IRES) sequence

Regulation during elongation or termination in eubacteria

Regulation during elongation or termination in eukaryotes

Post-translational regulation: degradation of intracellular proteins

Introduction

Chaperone proteins: chaperonins

Proteolytic enzymes

Protein ubiquitination

The proteasome

Lysosomal degradation

Autophagy

Part 3: Contribution of molecular biology to the study of genetic diversity

Basic concepts

Biodiversity

Genetic diversity

Measuring genetic diversity

Morphological markers

Protein markers: biochemical markers

DNA markers: molecular markers

Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)

Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP)

Minisatellites

Microsatellites

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)

Mitochondrial DNA markers

Examples of applications

Course content

Chapter 1: Introduction to forensic toxicology

Definition, history—Orfila, Marsh and Stas–Otto—and toxicologists’ objectives in judicial contexts:

Scope: medicolegal toxicology, human-performance toxicology and workplace screening.

Role and organisation: toxicologists in investigations and forensic laboratory structure.

Chain of custody: evidence traceability and integrity, CoC.

Accreditation and quality: ISO 17025 and good laboratory practice.

Chapter 2: Basic principles and dose–response relationships

Essential toxicity concepts:

Acute versus chronic toxicity: differences and clinical examples.

Dose–response curves: median lethal dose LD₅₀, median effective dose ED₅₀ and therapeutic index.

Safety margins and legal thresholds for blood alcohol, THC and opiates; legal limits are distinct from biological safety thresholds.

Pharmacological equivalence: comparing compounds by potency.

Chapter 3: Pharmacokinetics, ADME

Mechanisms of substance entry, disposition and elimination:

Absorption: oral and inhalation routes; intravenous administration bypasses absorption.

Distribution: volume of distribution and plasma protein binding.

Metabolism: phase I oxidation/cytochrome P450 and phase II conjugation.

Renal, biliary and pulmonary excretion: kₑ and t₁/₂.

Chapter 4: Sampling and preservation

Collection and processing of biological matrices:

Conventional matrices: central versus peripheral blood, urine, saliva and hair.

Post-mortem matrices: cerebrospinal fluid and liver/kidney tissues.

Sampling conditions: volumes, anticoagulants and temperature.

Preservation and transport: preventing degradation and controlling contamination.

Chapter 5: Titrimetry and colorimetric methods

Classical chemistry for rapid screening:

Acid–base and redox titration with permanganate/dichromate, and silver precipitation titration.

Colorimetric presumptive tests: Marquis and Duquenois–Levine for recreational drugs.

Analytical limitations: sensitivity, interference and specificity.

Historical applications: early screening and transition to instrumental analysis.

Chapter 6: Immunoassays, ELISA

Immunological techniques:

ELISA principles: sandwich, competitive, direct and indirect formats.

Performance: sensitivity, specificity and detection thresholds.

Cross-reactivity: matrix effects and nonspecific antibodies.

Automation and rapid tests: immunochromatography, including the source-listed name Tox-tab.

Chapter 7: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, GC-MS

An analytical reference method for many toxicants:

Gas chromatography: capillary columns and stationary-phase selection.

Electron ionisation, EI, versus chemical ionisation, CI.

Analysers: quadrupole, time-of-flight and high-resolution instruments.

Interpretation: fragmentation spectra and NIST spectral libraries.

Chapter 8: HPLC and LC-MS

For polar, less volatile compounds:

Columns: normal versus reversed phase and monodisperse particles

Operating modes: isocratic and gradient elution

Detectors: UV/PDA and mass spectrometry

Sample preparation: solid-phase extraction, SPE, and derivatisation

Chapter 9: Atomic and molecular spectroscopies

Trace-element measurement and molecular characterisation:

Atomic absorption spectroscopy, AAS: flame versus graphite furnace.

Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, ICP-MS: multielement analysis

UV-Vis/IR spectroscopy: functional-group bands and quantification

Atomic emission spectroscopy, AES: excitation sources and plasma; distinguish these from source lamps typically used in AAS.

Chapter 10: Post-mortem analyses

Specific considerations when interpreting results after death:

Post-mortem redistribution: phenomena and models

Sampling-site selection: comparative reliability of splanchnic versus peripheral blood

Lethal doses: interindividual variability

Judicial examples: decisive analyses in criminal cases

Chapter 11: Human-performance toxicology

Assessing behavioural effects:

Blood alcohol: Widmark model and legal thresholds

Psychotropic drugs: stimulants, depressants and hallucinogens

Field testing: sobriety tests and electronic breath alcohol instruments

Medical and legal implications: fitness to drive and work at height

Chapter 12: Method validation and statistics

Ensuring reliable results:

ISO 17025 procedures: documentation and traceability

Internal validation: linearity, precision and accuracy

Limits of detection and quantification, LOD/LOQ

Uncertainty analysis: error propagation

Chapter 13: Legal and ethical aspects

Legal framework for toxicological evidence:

Admissibility: Daubert and Frye are examples from US law, not general Algerian rules.

Expert responsibility: impartiality and conflicts of interest

Confidentiality and consent: sampling and autopsies

Publication ethics: transparency and reproducibility

Chapter 14: Case studies and practical workshops

Applying knowledge to realistic scenarios:

A complete case from scene to court: fatal alcohol poisoning or drug overdose

Expert reports: structure, clarity and references

Mock hearings: testimony and cross-examination

Critical review of method strengths and limitations

Course content

Workshop 1: Hair and follicular analysis

Theory: kinetics of incorporation into hair, detection window and growth factors.

Demonstration: chemical decontamination, extraction by acid/solvent incubation and purification.

Practical: LC-MS/MS analysis of cannabinoids and opiates in simulated human hair locks.

Workshop 2: Post-mortem redistribution

Principles: accumulation sites, central-to-peripheral gradients and influencing factors such as lipophilicity and pH.

Case study: comparison of barbiturate concentrations in cardiac and femoral blood.

Discussion: sampling recommendations concerning site and timing, and implications for expert reports.

Workshop 3: Cyanide and other volatile poisons

Theory: cyanide toxicokinetics and its mechanism of action through cytochrome c oxidase inhibition.

Demonstration: alkaline distillation, derivatization and GC-FID/MS measurement.

Practical: post-mortem sampling of liver and blood; interpretation of results in fire versus ingestion scenarios.

Workshop 4: Stable isotopes for traceability

Fundamentals: isotopic fractionation and natural versus synthetic sources.

Demonstration: sample preparation and isotope-ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS).

Case study: distinguishing artisanal from industrial methanol and determining the geographical origin of cocaine.

Workshop 5: Advanced methods for synthetic drugs

Theory: analytical challenges of new psychoactive substances (NPS), metabolites and complex sample matrices.

Webinar/demonstration: high-resolution accurate-mass (HRAM) analysis and non-targeted screening.

Practical: LC-HRAM-MS analysis of simulated panels and interpretation using spectral libraries.

Course content

Workshop 1: Insect collection and preservation

Capture techniques: fine-mesh nets, pup-tent traps, sweep netting and insect aspirators.

Immediate preservation: immersion in 70% ethanol versus rapid freezing, adapted to the larval or adult stage.

Field records and chain of custody: internal/external labelling, matching identification marks and environmental conditions including temperature, humidity and soil pH.

Workshop 2: Larval rearing and thermal modelling

Experimental setup: three climate chambers at 15°C, 25°C and 35°C containing Calliphora vicina larvae.

Instar monitoring: length and diameter measurements every 6 hours and developmental stage determination.

Statistical analysis: calculation of accumulated degree-days and correlation with observed larval ages.

Workshop 3: Morphological and taxonomic identification

Identification keys: observation of diagnostic features, including antennae, proboscis and wing sculpturing, under a binocular stereomicroscope.

Comparative exercises: rapid identification stations for 10 common species.

DNA demonstration: a short larval DNA extraction procedure and COI gene amplification for DNA barcoding confirmation.

Workshop 4: Insect succession on a simulated cadaver

Decomposition model: meat blocks placed outdoors, with daily community records.

Data processing: calculation of Shannon and Simpson diversity indices and monitoring of abundance peaks of Diptera and Coleoptera.

Interpretation: comparison with local databases to refine the PMI estimate.

Workshop 5: Entomotoxicology

Extraction: enzymatic lysis and solid-phase extraction (SPE) purification to isolate lipophilic compounds.

GC–MS: chromatographic parameters, including column, gradient and electron ionization (EI), and searching the NIST library.

Analysis: calculation of larval concentrations and discussion of effects on insect development and reconstruction of the circumstances of death.

Course content

Chapter 1: General introduction to the module

Definitions of key concepts: criminal anthropology and victimology.

Origins and development of the disciplines.

Their relevance and interrelationships within criminology.

Chapter 2: History of criminal anthropology

From Cesare Lombroso to modern approaches.

Anthropometry, phrenology and physical typologies.

Critical developments and moving beyond deterministic theories.

Chapter 3: Biological and behavioural foundations of crime

Neurobiological, genetic and hormonal approaches.

Links between the brain, impulsivity and violence.

Psychological and psychiatric factors.

Chapter 4: The anthropology of acting on criminal impulses

Processes of criminal radicalization.

Cultural and ritual dimensions of crime.

Crime in traditional versus modern societies.

Chapter 5: Offender typologies

Juvenile delinquency, sexual offending, psychopathic offending and white-collar crime.

Profile studies.

Recurring patterns in criminal trajectories.

Chapter 6: Foundations of victimology

The emergence of victimology: Benjamin Mendelsohn and Hans von Hentig.

Development into an independent science.

The victim’s place in the judicial system.

Chapter 7: Victim typologies

Primary, secondary and tertiary victims.

Vulnerable victims: children, women and older people.

Repeated and cumulative victimization.

Chapter 8: Vulnerability factors and victimization risks

Socioeconomic, environmental and behavioural factors.

Victims of abuse of power, domestic violence and trafficking.

Links with epidemiological data.

Chapter 9: Victim and aggressor: relational dynamics

Concepts of criminal interaction.

Theories of provocation and shared responsibility.

Psychological consequences for victims.

Chapter 10: Victim support

Reception, listening and support.

Roles of medicolegal services and associations.

Reparation, compensation and restorative justice.

Chapter 11: Case studies and integrated analyses

Notable criminal cases studied in anthropology.

Interdisciplinary analysis of real victimization cases.

Comparative analysis of victims, offenders and society.

Chapter 12: Current approaches and perspectives

Contributions of forensic sciences and biology.

Digital victimology and cybercrime.

Ethical issues and the role of prevention.

Course content

1. Patenting an invention

1.1. Introduction to intellectual property rights

1.2. Forms of intellectual property rights

A. Industrial property

- Patents

- Designs

- Registered trademarks

- Geographical indications

B. Non-industrial property

- Copyright ©

2. History and evolution of patent law

2.1. Development of patent legislation

2.2. History of the Algerian patent system

2.3. International conventions and treaties

2.4. Patent laws in other countries

3. Patent classification

3.1. Classification in Algeria

3.2. WIPO patent classification

3.3. Patent categories

3.4. Special patents

3.5. Biological product patents

4. General legislative provisions for patents in Algeria

4.1. Patentability: what can be patented?

4.2. Exclusions from patentability

4.3. Entitlement to a patent

4.4. Employee inventions

4.5. Unity of invention

4.6. Certificate of addition

5. Patent application and grant procedures

5.1. Filing

5.2. Examination

5.3. Grant

5.4. Maintaining patent validity

6. National patent system

6.1. Algerian National Institute of Industrial Property, INAPI

6.2. Patent application formalities

7. Filing a patent application abroad

7.1. Protecting an invention in several countries

7.2. Patent Cooperation Treaty, PCT

7.3. Advantages of the PCT

7.4. Filing an international application under the PCT

8. Patent holders: rights and duties

8.1. Patent ownership

8.2. Rights of owners and co-owners

8.3. Obligations of owners and co-owners

8.4. Transfer of patent rights

8.5. Limitations on patent rights

8.6. Restoration of patent rights

8.7. Patent infringement and offences

8.8. Infringement proceedings and remedies

9. Patenting life forms

14.1. Introduction

14.2. Patent grant criteria

14.2.1. Patentability prerequisites

14.2.2. Essential patentability requirements

14.3. Cell and cell-line patents

14.4. Gene and DNA sequence patents

14.4.1. Sequences for diagnostic tests

14.4.2. Sequences as research tools

14.4.3. Sequences for gene therapy

14.4.4. Sequences for therapeutic protein production

14.5. Animal patents

14.6. Protection of new plant varieties

14.6.1. Patents

14.6.2. Sui generis protection: International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants, UPOV

14.6.3. Geographical indications

10. Biopharmaceutical patents

10.1. Overview

10.2. Pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical products

10.2.1. Biologics versus conventional drugs

10.2.2. Biosimilars and “interchangeable” biologics

10.3. Rationale for biopharmaceutical IP protection

10.4. Patent protection for biologics

10.4.1. Incremental innovation

10.4.2. Evergreening

10.5. Patent protection for diagnostics

10.6. Effects of patent protection on genetic testing

10.7. International trade agreements on medicines

Course content

Introduction to programming

What is a program? Programming languages

Why choose Python for biology?

Examples of scientific applications

Installation and getting started

Installing Anaconda

First Python script

Running cells, saving and comments

Variables and data types

Primitive types: int, float, str, bool

Tuples, sets, lists and dictionaries

Mathematical and logical operators

Expressions and basic statements (input, output and assignment)

Control structures

Conditional statements: if, elif, else

Comparison operators

Repetition structures

for and while loops

break and continue statements

Iterating over lists

Functions

Defining a function with def

Parameters and return values

Files

7.1. Reading and writing .txt and .csv files

7.2. open(), read() and write() methods

Course Content

Unit 1: The World of Science and Work in Biotechnology

Grammar: Present perfect; review of basic tenses

Vocabulary: Scientific professions and employment terminology

Reading: Dream jobs in biotechnology and forensic science

Listening: The role of biotechnology in forensic science

Speaking: My future career in forensic biology

Writing: Writing an application letter for an internship

Unit 2: Forensic Biology and Crime Investigation

Grammar: Auxiliary verbs (do, be, have), questions, negatives, short answers

Vocabulary: Forensic evidence and biological traces

Reading: Wonders of forensic biology

Listening: How biological cells help solve crimes

Speaking: Biology quiz and forensic case discussion

Writing: Error correction and short descriptive paragraph

Unit 3: Bioethics, Biosecurity and Scientific Responsibility

Grammar: Present simple for scientific facts

Vocabulary: Scientific data and biosecurity terminology

Reading: Bioethics in forensic science

Listening: Biosecurity in forensic laboratories

Speaking: Debate on ethical issues in forensic biology

Writing: Writing a scientific paragraph using data and present tense

Unit 4: Evidence, Traces and Scientific Interpretation

Grammar: Past simple; expressions of quantity

Vocabulary: Biological samples, residues, particles, traces

Reading: How forensic scientists reconstruct crime scenes

Listening: Solving crimes with microscopic evidence

Speaking: How much evidence is enough?

Writing: Scientific report describing methods and results

Unit 5: Genetic Engineering and Molecular Forensics

Grammar: Modal verbs (could, might, must, should)

Vocabulary: DNA tools, genetic modification, forensic genetics

Reading: CRISPR and genetically modified organisms in forensic science

Listening: DNA fingerprinting using restriction enzymes

Speaking: Debate on risks and benefits of genetic engineering

Writing: Paragraph on potential misuse of GMOs in forensic contexts

Unit 6: The Future of Biotechnology and Forensic Innovation

Grammar: Future forms; conditionals; relative clauses

Vocabulary: Innovation, forensic technologies, biotech startups

Reading: CRISPR and forensic startups

Listening: AI in forensic science and legal frontiers

Speaking: The future role of genetic engineering in crime investigation

Writing: Email to an internship supervisor describing a forensic lab project plan

Unit 7: Applied Biotechnology in Food, Environment and Microalgae

Grammar: Conditionals; reported speech

Vocabulary: Enzymes, microalgae, biotechnology applications

Reading: High-value products from microalgae

Listening: Forensic botany and environmental crime cases

Speaking: Biotechnology and environmental crime prevention

Writing: Scientific paragraph using conditionals and reported speech

Course content

Chapter 1: General introduction to parasites and their forensic relevance

1.1 The concept of a parasite

1.2 Main categories of parasites

1.3 Life cycles and indirect forensic relevance

1.4 Parasites as biological indicators

1.5 Parasites and forensic traces: initial connection with the module

1.6 Simple examples, required for understanding

Chapter 2: General introduction to bacteria and their role in forensic science

2.1 Bacteria in a forensic context

2.2 Human and environmental microbiomes

2.3 Bacterial succession

2.4 Bacteria as forensic indicators

2.5 Simple examples

Chapter 3: General introduction to fungi and their forensic relevance

3.1 Introduction to forensic mycology

3.2 Fungi and decomposition

3.3 Fungi as environmental indicators

3.4 Forensic applications

3.5 Simple examples

Chapter 4: General introduction to viruses and their role in forensic science

4.1 The concept of a virus

4.2 Viruses as biological traces

4.3 Forensic virology

4.4 Introduction to bioterrorism

4.5 Examples

Chapter 5: Atypical biological agents: prions and non-conventional entities

5.1 Introduction to non-classical agents

5.2 Prions

5.3 Forensic relevance

5.4 Real cases

Chapter 6: Microorganisms and the forensic environment

6.1 The concept of an environmental microbiome

6.2 The crime scene as an ecosystem

6.3 Microbial transfer

6.4 Applications

Chapter 7: General applications in forensic science

7.1 Human forensics

7.2 Animal forensics

7.3 Plant forensics

7.4 Environmental crime

Chapter 8: Biocrime and bioterrorism

8.1 The concept of biocrime

8.2 Hazardous biological agents

8.3 Biological investigation

Chapter 9: Limitations and interpretation of biological evidence

9.1 Reliability of biological evidence

9.2 Possible errors

9.3 Admissibility in court

Course content

Chapter 1: Introduction to food crime

Food fraud, falsification, adulteration and deception.

Non-compliance versus offences and deliberate fraud.

Public health, consumer trust and the economy.

Chapter 2: History and emergence

Historical examples in the programme: lead-adulterated wine in ancient Rome and melamine in milk.

Cases discussed: horsemeat, fipronil-contaminated eggs and adulterated oil.

Globalisation, industrialisation and logistics.

Chapter 3: Types of food fraud

Substitution, dilution, false origin and prohibited additives.

Falsified expiry dates, fraudulent labels and false health claims.

Intentional versus unintentional contamination.

Chapter 4: Supply chain vulnerabilities

Farm to fork: production, processing, storage and distribution.

Long and short chains and opportunities for fraud.

Economic actors and risk areas.

Chapter 5: Food falsification methods

Colourants, unlawful substitutes and alteration of product nature.

False organic, halal, protected designation of origin PDO/AOP and geographical indication PGI/IGP claims.

Cases involving oils, wines, meat, honey, fish, milk and spices.

Chapter 6: Health consequences

Poisoning, allergies, chronic effects and carcinogenicity.

Aflatoxins, dioxins, heavy metals and illicit pesticides.

Children, pregnant women and immunocompromised people.

Chapter 7: Laboratory analysis and detection

Physicochemical methods GC-MS, HPLC, IR and NMR, and molecular methods such as PCR; PCR is not simply a physicochemical assay.

Species DNA detection for animal/plant origin fraud.

Rapid ELISA, portable chromatography and sensors.

Chapter 8: Investigation and traceability

Evidence formation: sampling, seals and protocols.

Barcodes and food blockchain traceability.

Expert reports in disputes and investigations.

Chapter 9: Food safety regulatory and legal frameworks

National/European texts and frameworks listed in the programme: Regulation EC 178/2002, Common Agricultural Policy CAP and Codex Alimentarius. These are distinct frameworks, not a single law applicable everywhere.

Manufacturer and distributor responsibilities.

Offences and criminal, civil and administrative sanctions.

Chapter 10: Official controls and authorities

French DGCCRF, veterinary services and control laboratories in their respective contexts.

Audit, inspection and targeted sampling.

Withdrawal, recall and administrative closure.

Chapter 11: Food crime and international trade

Import/export regulation.

Black markets in food.

Programme case examples: contaminated rice, exported spoiled meat and counterfeit Chinese honey.

Chapter 12: Food crime and organised crime

Food-related mafias, including mozzarella cases and market control.

Money laundering through food trade.

Geopolitics and corruption.

Chapter 13: Prevention and anti-fraud technology

Smart packaging, tamper-evident labels and digital traceability.

Authenticity by spectrometry and chemical fingerprints.

AI, Internet of Things and blockchain for food safety.

Chapter 14: Professionals and consumer awareness

Duties of farmers, processors, distributors and caterers.

Reading labels and identifying suspicious products.

Consumer-protection associations and whistleblowers.

Chapter 15: Cases, simulations and integrated prevention

Cases for study: adulterated milk in China, counterfeit Bordeaux wine and manipulated farmed salmon.

Simulated investigation of a suspicious product.

Prevention plan for a fictional food business.

Course content

General forensic medicine

Introduction

History of forensic medicine

Forensic medicine around the world

Definition of forensic medicine

Definition

Branches of forensic medicine

The purpose of forensic medicine

Combating crime

Establishing the truth

Areas of application of forensic medicine

In living persons

Medico-legal emergencies

Bodily injury

Expert assessment of medical, civil, criminal and other forms of liability

In deceased persons

Thanatology: autopsy, examination of the body at the scene and related procedures

Identification using anthropology, genetics and other methods

Toxicology

The role of the forensic physician

The forensic physician and society

The forensic physician and the justice system

The value of medico-legal evidence

Types of physical evidence

Legal and scientific issues concerning medico-legal evidence

Specialist forensic medicine

Introduction

Forensic traumatology

Abrasions

Contusions

Sharp-force injuries

Blunt-force lacerations

Fractures

Crush injuries

Paediatric forensic medicine

Maltreatment

Infanticide

Sudden infant death

Sexual forensic medicine

Public indecency

Indecent assault

Anal sexual assault, using the terminology of the programme

Rape

What the programme terms “sexual perversions”

Abortion

Module content:

Lecture programme:

Chapter 1 — Fundamentals and forensic databases

1.1. Computing in forensic biology: applications (DNA profiling and bacterial strain tracing)

Introduction to Unix/Linux: navigation and scripting for forensic pipelines

Database concepts: relational schemas, indexing and sample metadata

Nucleotide and protein databases: GenBank, RefSeq and forensic STR databases

Structural databases: PDB, pathogen protein structures and antigens

Biological XML/DTD formats: data exchange formats (SBML and FASTA-XML)

Pattern-matching algorithms: searching for short tandem repeats (STRs)

Search tools: BLAST and HMMER — forensic use contexts

Protein identification from DNA: translation, reading frames and peptide analysis

Searching for similar sequences: local versus global alignment and applications to genotyping

Using NCBI portals: the interface, GEO, SRA and ClinVar

Publicly available tools and automated pipelines: Galaxy, Bioconda and Nextflow

EBI resources: ENA and UniProtKB, and the resource named “africa forensic data” in the programme

Specialist web resources: CODIS and the Europol DNA databases mentioned in the programme

Database exploration: filters, simple SQL queries and Biopython

Chapter 2 — Individual DNA sequence analysis in forensic work

Human gene databases: STR loci, Y-STRs and mitochondrial DNA

Sequence submission and retrieval: dbSTR and YHRD

Sequence alignment: principles and scoring matrices suited to forensic matching

Pairwise alignment: BLASTn and Smith–Waterman for STR profiles

STR motif discovery: automated repeat detection and allele cataloguing

Local structural variants: indels, STR microvariants and their forensic interpretation

Bacterial genome assembly: tracing contamination (Salmonella and bacilli)

Chapter 3 — Multiple alignment and forensic phylogenetics

Multiple alignments: CLUSTAL Omega and MUSCLE applied to multilocus STR sequences

Flexible searching: FASTA3 for divergence between pathogenic strains

CLUSTALW/CLUSTALX: graphical interfaces for forensic experts

Submission of aligned sequences: SEQUIN and NCBI BankIt

Updating and annotation: versions and change tracking

Phylogenetic analysis: MEGA and tree construction to trace outbreak origins or cross-contamination

Genetic interpretation: bootstrap resampling, genetic distances and forensic clusters

Practical programme (5 workshops)

Sequence searches: BLASTn on human STR loci; querying GenBank and ForenSTR.

Primer design: Primer3 adapted to short STR repeats and in silico profile verification.

PCR and cloning simulation: SnapGene for multiplex STR PCR and insertion of fragments into vectors.

Alignments: pairwise (BLAST) and multiple (CLUSTAL); analysis of mixed DNA profiles. Construction of a phylogenetic tree using MEGA.

Phylogenetic trees and annotation: MEGA for strain profiling and Geneious for annotation.

Course content

Workshop 1: Detection of adulteration in food products: honey, milk and oil

Honey authenticity tests: solubility, heat and water tests.

Detection of added starch or water in milk.

Analysis of peroxide value and acidity in olive oil.

Interpretation in relation to fraudulent practices.

Workshop 2: Isolation and identification of pathogenic microorganisms in food samples

Inoculation of milk, meat or juice samples onto selective media for Salmonella, E. coli and Listeria.

Incubation, colony observation and Gram staining.

Microbiological interpretation in a food-poisoning context.

Workshop 3: Detection of chemical contaminants in food: pesticides and heavy metals

Extraction of contaminants from fruit, vegetables or cereals.

Qualitative pesticide detection, for example by thin-layer chromatography.

Colorimetric tests for heavy metals: lead and mercury.

Relating findings to applicable regulations.

Workshop 4: Detection of meat fraud by PCR and DNA traceability

DNA extraction from meat samples.

PCR amplification using species-specific primers for cattle, horse, pig and other species.

Visualization of products by electrophoresis.

Interpretation of results in the context of fraudulent labelling.

Course content

Workshop 1: Morphological identification of parasites of forensic interest

Workshop 2: Bacterial microorganisms at crime scenes

Workshop 3: Forensic mycology — fungi as biological tracers

Workshop 4: Molecular techniques applied to forensic parasitology and mycology

Workshop 5: Comparative diagnosis at a simulated scene

Course content

I — Lectures

The entrepreneurial university and University 4.0

University evolution from 1.0 to 4.0

Characteristics of University 4.0

Digital transformation and AI in higher education

Universities in the knowledge economy

Research valorisation

Turning research results into startups

Universities as drivers of innovation and economic development

International examples: MIT, Stanford, Cambridge, Tsinghua, National University of Singapore, NUS, Technical University of Munich, TUM, and PSL/École Polytechnique in France; the latter are distinct institutions.

Entrepreneurship and innovation ecosystems in Algeria and universities

Defining the entrepreneurial ecosystem

Key ecosystem participants

Algerian innovation-support policy

Incubators and accelerators

Investment funds

Ministerial Decision 1275 cited in the programme: startups, microenterprises and patents; consult applicable texts when implementing it.

University incubators and technology support centres

AI’s role in the ecosystem

Links between universities and the economic environment

Introduction to startups and Lean Startup

Traditional businesses versus startups

Innovation concept

Uncertainty in entrepreneurial projects

Origins of Lean Startup

Fundamental methodological principles

Validated learning

Waste reduction

Build–Measure–Learn cycle

Innovation accounting

Traditional accounting versus innovation accounting

Measuring progress under uncertainty

Learning indicators rather than profit indicators alone

Market understanding and customer discovery

Startup creation stages: idea, team, prototype and investment

Steve Blank’s methodology

Customer development: understanding markets and customer behaviour

Problem identification

Customer-needs analysis

Entrepreneurial interviews

Constructing hypotheses

Problem–solution fit

Business Model Canvas

Business Model Canvas concept

Value proposition

Customer segments

Distribution channels

Revenue streams

Financial structure and cost structure

Minimum viable product, MVP

MVP concept

MVP types: digital, experimental, service and fake-door interest tests before product availability

Hypothesis testing

Rapid prototyping

Prototype development tools

Digital and industrial MVPs

Measuring hypothesis failure as quickly as possible

AI and TRIZ for innovation

AI in entrepreneurship

Idea generation

Market analysis

MVP development

Intelligent marketing

TRIZ inventive problem-solving methodology

Technical contradictions

Ideal final result

Combining AI with TRIZ

Deep-tech startups

Measurement, analytics and failure management

Key performance indicators, KPIs

Startup management

Leading innovation teams

Concepts for measuring startup growth

AARRR metrics: five stages for assessing startup development:

Acquisition: how do we reach and attract customers?

Activation: does the user try the product for the first time?

Retention: do users return to use the product?

Revenue: does the project generate income? Distinguish revenue from profit.

Referral: do users recommend the product to others?

Pivot or persevere

Pivot: a partial or complete strategic change

Persevere: continue in the current direction

When should direction change?

Pivot types

Decision-making indicators

Funding, growth and scaling

Initial funding

Bootstrapping/self-funding

Investors

Business angels

Venture capital

Crowdfunding

Funding stages

Growth hacking

Engines of growth

II — Practical sessions

1 — The entrepreneurial university and University 4.0

Case study: how did MIT contribute to creating thousands of startups?

Students analyse:

Links between scientific research and innovation

Roles of seminars and accelerators

Innovation valorisation mechanisms

University contributions to the local economy

Required work:

Identify entrepreneurial university model components

Compare Algerian universities with MIT

Propose an Algerian university’s transition to University 4.0

Workshop: designing an Algerian University 4.0

Students work in teams.

Each team designs:

An innovation centre

A business incubator

A project accelerator

A technology and innovation support centre

A subsidiary enterprise

A university investment fund

Present an integrated, coherent organisational plan forming a comprehensive University 4.0 roadmap.

2 — Case study: an Algerian startup’s journey

Select an Algerian startup awarded the startup label.

Required work:

Analyse stakeholders and their roles

Identify funding sources

Map the surrounding ecosystem

Propose growth-acceleration tools

Workshop: mapping the entrepreneurial ecosystem with Miro or Canva

Understand ecosystem participants and analyse their interactions.

What is entrepreneurial ecosystem mapping?

A visual representation of the environment in which a startup emerges, develops and grows.

It shows stakeholders in project creation, development and support, and their relationships and interactions.

Step 1: Identify participants

Identify principal participants, for example:

Universities and research institutions

University incubators

Startup accelerators

Businesses and industrial firms

Economic and financial institutions

Banks

Government agencies

Startups and project promoters

Step 2: Organise participants into groups

Structure ecosystem participants into categories.

1. Knowledge production

Universities

Research centres

Scientific laboratories

2. Training, guidance and support

Incubators

Startup accelerators

Entrepreneurship support centres

3. Funding

Business angels

Investment funds

Banks

4. Market

Economic institutions

Customers

Industrial partners

5. Regulation and organisation

Ministries

Government bodies

National agencies

Step 3: Create the ecosystem map

Using Miro or Canva

Required work:

Place the innovative business at the centre

Position other participants around it

Show the nature of their relationships

Example structure:

University → research → business

Incubator → support → startup

Investor → funding → business

Economic institution/business → market

Step 4: Analyse relationships

Each team answers:

Who are the key participants in startup success?

Which ecosystem relationships are missing?

How can university–business cooperation improve?

What obstacles do startups face in this ecosystem?

End of session/workshop

Each group presents:

An entrepreneurial ecosystem map

An explanation of participant relationships

Proposals to improve Algeria’s entrepreneurial ecosystem

The workshop goes beyond theoretical knowledge of participants to understanding startup success as a whole system.

A startup depends on a complete network of participants and relationships, not just an idea.

Students construct:

An incubator map

An investor map

A university map

A government-body map

A representation of their relationships

3 — Case study: technology startup failure

A startup developed a complete product without first validating market demand.

Required work:

Identify mistakes

Analyse sources of waste

Propose a Lean Startup application

Construct an alternative Build–Measure–Learn cycle

Workshop: Dropbox case analysis

The example describes validating demand through a simple explanatory video before full product development.

Required work:

Identify initial hypotheses

Analyse the validation mechanism

Compare experimentation costs with full development costs

4 — Case study: an AI platform for students

The teaching team assumes students need an academic assistance platform.

Required work:

Formulate 10 hypotheses

Prepare an interview guide

Conduct 20 field interviews

Identify actual problems

Workshop: entrepreneurial interviews

Interview simulation

Students take different roles:

Entrepreneur

Potential customer

Investor

Required work:

Ask relevant questions

Simulate realistic exchanges

Analyse responses

5 — Case study: a digital-health startup

Remote medical consultations as an educational case study

Required work:

Develop a complete business model including:

Proposed value

Customers

Revenue

Partners

Workshop:

60-minute challenge

Each team presents a different project

Create a complete Business Model Canvas

Defend the project before an assessment panel

6 — Case study: an intelligent validation application

A team challenge with limited resources

Required work:

Design a low-cost MVP

Identify critical hypotheses to test

Choose the most appropriate MVP type

Define success and failure indicators

Workshop: build a real MVP

Students build a functional MVP using:

Figma

Glide

Bubble

Canvas, the tool name as written in the source

Develop an initial prototype during the session or complete it at home.

7 — Case study: a smart agriculture startup

Increase agricultural production while reducing water consumption.

Required work:

Identify the technical contradiction

Apply TRIZ principles

Use generative AI assistants to generate solutions

Evaluate proposed solutions

Workshop: AI Innovation Sprint

Duration: 90 minutes

Student work:

Generate an innovative idea

Define an MVP

Build a business model

Use only AI tools for idea generation

8 — Case study: an e-learning platform

Data:

10 000 visits

1 000 registrations

400 active users

40 paying customers

Required work:

Calculate available AARRR indicators and identify missing retention, referral and revenue data

Identify the main bottleneck

Propose improvements

Assess signs of product–market fit without treating these counts alone as sufficient proof

Workshop: startup dashboard

Build a dashboard including:

Acquisition

Activation

Retention

Revenue

Referral

Burn rate

Required work:

Interpret results

Explain project strengths and weaknesses

Propose corrective action

9 — Case study: Instagram

Analyse the Burbn → Instagram transition

Required work:

Identify the reason for the pivot

Identify decision-supporting data

Analyse results

Propose possible strategic alternatives

Workshop: strategic board simulation

Simulate a management meeting and analyse a startup dossier containing:

Performance indicators

Customer feedback

Financial data

Make a collective decision:

Pivot

Persevere

Stop the project

Support every decision with data and statistics.

10 — Semester project: Startup Lab

The final practical project runs throughout the module.

It includes:

Identifying a real problem

Customer discovery

Business Model Canvas

MVP design

AI and TRIZ tools

Result analysis and measurement

Pivot/persevere decision

Funding and growth plan

Final pitch

Additional section present in the source: ethics and professionalism in criminal psychology

Ethical standards in practice

Professional responsibilities

Limitations and controversies

Course content

Introduction: Welcome to R

Software installation

Basics of using R

Calculating means and standard deviations

Correlation and regression analysis

Graphical representations

Analysis of variance (one-way and two-way) and analysis of covariance

Statistical tests

Course content

1. Data manipulation with NumPy

Use NumPy arrays to represent biological data (sequences and matrices).

Apply vector operations and slicing to data analysis.

2. Biological data analysis with pandas

Read and manipulate CSV files (e.g. PCR results and enzyme assays).

Sort, filter and group data for experimental analysis.

3. Data visualisation with Matplotlib

Create plots (curves and histograms) to present biological results.

Customise visualisations (titles, legends and labels).

4. Object-oriented programming (OOP)

Fundamental concepts: understand classes, objects, attributes and methods; implement a simple class.

Inheritance and special methods.

5. Introduction to Biopython

Read and analyse FASTA files.

Extract information from DNA sequences (length and content).

Course content

Chapter 1: Genetic mutation fundamentals and inheritance of human diseases

Mutation types underlying human genetic diseases

Small-scale genetic alterations

Point mutations

Substitutions: transitions and transversions

Effects: missense, nonsense and silent mutations

Insertions and deletions, indels, and their consequences

Splicing mutations and their consequences for mRNA and protein synthesis

Chromosomal abnormalities

Numerical abnormalities

Structural abnormalities

Detection: karyotyping, FISH and array comparative genomic hybridisation, array CGH

Origins of genetic mutations

Constitutional mutations

Acquired mutations

De novo mutations

Inheritance patterns of genetic diseases

Classical Mendelian inheritance

Autosomal dominant inheritance

Huntington disease

Marfan syndrome

Autosomal recessive inheritance

Cystic fibrosis

Phenylketonuria

X-linked inheritance

Recessive: haemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, DMD, and colour blindness

Dominant: the hereditary rickets example cited; Alport syndrome, also cited, has multiple inheritance patterns, including X-linked, autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive forms.

Mitochondrial inheritance

Leber hereditary optic neuropathy

Special inheritance patterns

Codominance

Genomic imprinting according to parental origin

Uniparental disomy

Chapter 2: Concepts modifying disease expression

Penetrance

Definition

Types of penetrance

Complete penetrance

Incomplete penetrance

Influencing factors

Environment

Epigenetics

Variable expressivity

Variation in clinical signs among carriers of the same mutation

Example: neurofibromatosis type 1

Multifactorial diseases

Genome–environment interactions

Diabetes, schizophrenia, obesity and autoimmune diseases

Late-onset diseases

Chapter 3: Molecular approaches to disease and forensic applications

Epigenetics and disease

Principles of epigenetics

Mechanisms: DNA methylation, histone modifications and non-coding RNAs

Impact of epigenetics on human diseases

Environmental influences, including stress, diet and pollution, on gene expression

Epigenetics and criminal behaviour: critical study of associations and limits of causal inference

Studied associations between epigenetics and violent or antisocial behaviour, without biological determinism.

Studies of relationships between trauma, post-traumatic stress and criminal behaviour

Molecular oncology and cancer genetics

Molecular foundations of oncogenesis

Activating and inactivating mutations: oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes

Genomic instability: role of chromosomal abnormalities in cancer development

Cancer genetics and identification of causes of suspicious deaths

Pharmacogenetics and forensic medicine

Principles of pharmacogenetics

Interindividual variability in drug responses

Polymorphisms in genes involved in responses to drug treatments

Pharmacogenetics and criminology

Understanding drug effects on behaviour in criminal investigations: poisoning or overdose

Assessing risks of extreme treatment reactions and possible behavioural effects; genetic susceptibility does not establish criminal behaviour.

Molecular genetics of human disease and forensic biology

Improving suspect and victim identification

Studying criminal behaviour and mental disorders while respecting limits of genetic inference

Chapter 4: Investigating gene and chromosome lesions

Classical techniques

PCR, qPCR, PCR repeated in the source, and Sanger sequencing

Southern and Northern blotting

Advanced technologies

NGS: whole-genome sequencing, WGS, whole-exome sequencing, WES, and targeted panels; DNA microarrays

RNA-seq for expression disorders

Array CGH and FISH for chromosomal abnormalities

Bioinformatic interpretation

Databases: ClinVar, HGMD and gnomAD

Prediction tools: SIFT, PolyPhen and MutationTaster

Chapter 5: Ethical and legal implications of genetic data

Prenatal and postnatal diagnosis: ethical and societal impact

Confidentiality and management of genetic data

Genetics and criminal responsibility

Influence of genetic disorders on behaviour

Potential misuse of the “crime gene” argument

Module content

Chapter 1 — General introduction to pharmaceutical crime

Key definitions: counterfeiting, falsification, substandard products and illicit medicines.

Pharmaceutical crime versus organised crime.

Overview of health, economic, geopolitical and ethical issues.

Chapter 2 — History and emergence of the phenomenon

Major historical scandals (e.g. Elixir Sulfanilamide and adulterated paracetamol syrup).

Development of pharmaceutical trafficking with globalisation.

Notable case studies in Africa, Asia and Europe.

Chapter 3 — The medicine supply chain: lawful stages and exploited vulnerabilities

Manufacturing, distribution and dispensing: official channels.

Points vulnerable to criminal infiltration.

The role of parallel markets and e-commerce.

Chapter 4 — Types and forms of falsified medicines

Classification by type of fraud: absent active ingredient, incorrect strength, unsuitable excipients, etc.

The difference between generic and counterfeit medicines.

Typical examples: falsified medicines in oncology, infectious diseases and cardiology.

Chapter 5 — Falsification methods and illicit production networks

Means used to imitate products: packaging, marking and formulations.

Clandestine factories and trade in chemical components.

Connections with other forms of crime (organ, drug and arms trafficking).

Chapter 6 — Analytical tools for laboratory detection

Quality control methods: TLC, HPLC, UV analysis, spectroscopy and mass spectrometry.

Use of portable field devices (Raman, NIR and Minilab).

Sampling, preservation and documentation protocols.

Chapter 7 — Health and toxicological impact of falsified medicines

Poisoning, deaths and antimicrobial resistance.

Practical cases: falsified antimalarials, insulin and vaccines.

Effects on public health systems.

Chapter 8 — Forensic and medicolegal investigations

Sampling, seizure and packaging of pharmaceutical evidence.

Comparative analysis (suspect product versus original product).

Preparation of medicolegal expert reports.

Chapter 9 — Legal measures against pharmaceutical crime

Legislation and classification of criminal offences.

Civil, administrative and criminal liability.

Case law and examples of penalties.

Chapter 10 — National and international regulations

Legal frameworks associated with WHO, WTO, WIPO, EMA and FDA.

European directives (e.g. serialisation).

Harmonisation of laws between countries (cross-border cooperation).

Chapter 11 — Specialist agencies and international operations

Introduction to agencies: WHO, Interpol, UNODC, Europol and France’s DGCCRF.

Notable operations and resources named in the programme: Pangea, GPHF and the Rapid Alert System.

Limitations and obstacles to combating the problem worldwide.

Chapter 12 — Pharmaceutical crime and cybercrime

Sale of medicines on the dark web.

Social networks and illegal online pharmacies.

Digital traceability tools (blockchain, e-prescribing and QR codes).

Chapter 13 — Technologies and innovations for securing medicines

Anti-counterfeiting techniques: holograms, serial numbers and RFID.

Serialisation and supply-chain traceability.

Authentication platforms for professionals and consumers.

Chapter 14 — Prevention, awareness and the role of healthcare professionals (3 hours)

Education of prescribers and pharmacists.

Patient awareness campaigns.

Reporting suspect products.

Chapter 15 — Case studies, simulations and practical exercises (3 hours)

Case studies: falsified tuberculosis medicines, the Avastin case and toxic paediatric syrups.

Simulated analysis of a suspect product.

Development of an integrated response plan for a fictional country.

Course content

Chapter 1: Forensic traces

Trace concepts and types according to Locard.

Scientific and judicial value.

Chain of custody, preservation and transport.

Trace-based criminal intelligence.

Chapter 2: Crime scene and physical trace management

Scene security and demarcation.

Search strategies for visible and latent traces.

Sampling plans and photographic documentation.

Collection kits, gloves and forensic lighting.

Chapter 3: Introduction to fingerprint examination

History of fingerprint identification.

Friction ridge anatomy and formation.

Latent, plastic and visible prints.

Galton and Vucetich classification.

Chapter 4: Recording and developing fingerprints

Black, magnetic and fluorescent powders.

Cyanoacrylate fuming, ninhydrin, DFO and IND.

Vacuum metal deposition VMD, lasers and alternative light sources.

Practical case: development on different surfaces.

Chapter 5: Fingerprint analysis and comparison

Features: deltas, bifurcations and ridge endings; distinguish pattern-level deltas from local minutiae such as endings and bifurcations.

ACE-V: analysis, comparison, evaluation and verification.

Potential errors and cognitive bias.

Automated systems and databases: AFIS, EURODAC.

Chapter 6: Ballistics fundamentals and types

Internal, external and terminal ballistics.

Firearm categories, operation and projectile types.

Kinetic energy and trajectories.

Terminology: bullets, cartridge cases, percussion and rifling.

Chapter 7: Forensic ballistic marks

Firearm marks on projectiles: rifling and striations.

Cartridge case marks: firing pin and extractor.

Comparison microscopy.

Ballistic records and databases: IBIS.

Chapter 8: Shooting interpretation and reconstruction

Contact, distant and angled shots.

Trajectory and projection analysis.

Bloodstains as supporting evidence.

Cases: homicide, shootings and staged suicide.

Chapter 9: Gunshot residue, GSR

Lead, barium and antimony in the conventional residues listed in the programme.

Swabs, adhesives and cotton sampling.

SEM-EDX and spectrometry.

Evidential value and detection windows.

Chapter 10: Microtrace concepts and classification

Definition and forensic significance.

Microfibres, glass fragments, paint, soil, pollen, etc.

Primary/secondary transfer and persistence.

Associative versus indicative traces.

Chapter 11: Textile fibre collection and comparison

Natural, regenerated/manufactured and synthetic fibres.

Polarised light microscopy, FTIR and UV-visible microspectrometry.

Comparative reporting.

Abduction and assault cases.

Chapter 12: Glass, paint and plastics

Glass physical and chemical properties.

Fractures, reconstruction and fractography.

Automotive paint layers, pigments and GC-MS.

Plastic identification by pyrolysis and spectroscopy.

Chapter 13: Footwear and tyre impressions

Positive, negative and three-dimensional impressions.

Casting, gel lifting and electrostatic lifting.

SICAR and SoleMate databases.

Manual and software-assisted comparison.

Chapter 14: Traces in judicial investigations

Relating traces to crime hypotheses.

Evidential weight, relevance and specificity.

Communication with judges, lawyers and investigators.

Expert reports.

Chapter 15: Cases, simulations and interpretation errors

Notable fingerprint/ballistics cases, e.g. Madrid bombings.

False positives, false negatives and human error.

Demonstrations and simulated scenes.

Ethical and scientific reflection on reliability.

Course content

Introduction to cybercrime

Definitions and basic concepts

History and development of cybercrime

Legal and regulatory framework

Cybercrime legislation and international regulations

Jurisdictions and competencies in cybercrime cases

Legal responsibilities of individuals, businesses and governments

Computer hacking techniques

Social engineering

Malware: viruses, worms, Trojan horses, ransomware and other malicious software

Distributed denial-of-service attacks (DDoS)

Vulnerability exploitation

Methods for investigating and combating cybercrime

Collection and preservation of digital evidence

Computer forensics

Cooperation between law enforcement, government agencies and private companies

International cooperation in cybercrime investigations

Risks and threats associated with cybercrime

Identity theft and online fraud

Industrial espionage and cyberespionage

Cyberterrorism and cyberwarfare

Attacks on critical infrastructure, including energy, finance and healthcare

Protection and prevention

Computer network security

Data and information systems security

Cybersecurity good practices for individuals, businesses and government organisations

Security awareness and user training

Ethics and moral issues

Social and ethical impacts of cybercrime

Responsibilities of information security professionals

Debates on privacy, surveillance and freedom of expression online

Course content

Workshop 1: Fingerprints and DNA profiling

Workshop 2: Detection and interpretation of associated biological trace evidence

Workshop 3: Introduction to trace evidence and ballistics

Workshop 4: Pharmaceutical crime — identification of counterfeit products

Workshop 5: Traceability and authentication of pharmaceutical products

Course content

Workshop 1: Human genomic DNA extraction (salting-out method or kit)

Workshop 2: Quantitative and qualitative assessment of extracted DNA

Workshop 3: Allele-specific PCR

Workshop 4: PCR-RFLP

Workshop 5: Multiplex PCR

Workshop 6: PCR-SSCP

Workshop 7: qPCR

Course content

Introduction to criminal psychology

Definitions and fields of study

History of criminal psychology

Importance and practical applications

Theories of crime

Biological theories

Psychological theories: psychodynamic, cognitive and social

Sociological theories

Integrative approaches

Psychological factors in criminal behaviour

Mental disorders and crime

Psychopathy and antisocial behaviour

Development of delinquency

Research methods in criminal psychology

Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies

Observation and interview methods

Psychological assessment techniques

Criminal profiling

Profiling techniques

Case studies and practical applications

Psychological interventions

Cognitive behavioural therapies

Offender rehabilitation programmes

Prevention of reoffending

Ethics and professionalism in criminal psychology

Ethical standards in practice

Professional responsibilities

Limitations and controversies

Course content

Chapter 1: Principles and challenges of reverse engineering in the life sciences

Fundamental concepts of reverse engineering

Definition and history

Origins in mechanical and electronic engineering, followed by adaptation to the life sciences.

The importance of reverse engineering in modern biology: understanding, improving and reproducing.

Differences between reverse engineering and forward engineering

Forward engineering: a linear design process from idea to product.

Reverse engineering: starting with an existing product to infer its design.

Industrial applications

Maintenance and improvement of biological equipment, such as PCR instruments and sequencers.

Competitive innovation: bioprinting and developing alternative diagnostic tools.

Interoperability: compatibility between instruments, software and databases.

Technology Readiness Level (TRL) scale

Overview of the nine TRLs

TRL 1: Observation of basic scientific principles.

TRL 5: Technology validation in a relevant environment.

TRL 9: A system proven in an operational environment.

Positioning a biological project on the TRL scale

Examples: developing a rapid PCR test and producing experimental vaccines.

Resources needed to progress through the TRLs

Human, material and financial resources.

Planning pilot and pre-industrial trials.

Legal framework and intellectual property

The right to reverse engineer in relation to patents

Fair use, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) and European directives.

International comparative analysis

Summary table:

Managing legal risks

Drafting clear contracts, specific reverse-engineering clauses and anti-circumvention protections.

Legal limits

Reverse engineering permitted for analysis and interoperability; prohibited for unauthorised copying or resale.

Chapter 2: Integrated approaches to reverse engineering, bioinformatics and biological systems modelling

Reverse engineering of biological systems

Biological deconstruction approach

Decomposing metabolic networks and signalling pathways.

Functional reconstruction from experimental data.

Practical examples

Oxidative stress response networks.

Molecular mechanisms of apoptosis.

Bioinformatics and free software in the biological sciences

Introduction to open-source software

Biopython, RStudio and Galaxy for biological analysis.

Practical workshops

Genome annotation with GenomeTools.

Analysing target-gene sequence data using FastQC and Clustal Omega.

Modelling and simulation in biology

Free simulation tools

COPASI for biochemical systems dynamics.

CellDesigner for modelling signalling networks.

Mini-projects

Simulating the dynamics of an inflammatory network.

Optimising a metabolic pathway using a dynamic model.

Reverse engineering of forensic biological analyses

Study of commercial DNA analysis kits and open-source tools such as STRait Razor.

Free tools for interpreting DNA profiles, such as Arlequin and STRUCTURE.

Workshop

Reconstructing a virtual crime scene using free tools.

Course content

Unit 1: Basic rules of language for scientific manuscripts

- Overview of language for scientific manuscripts

- Tenses

- Grammar

- Sentences

- Paragraphs

Unit 2: Common errors to avoid when writing a manuscript

Unit 3: Thesis defence

- What is a thesis defence?

- How to begin your presentation

- Formulating the research problem and objectives

- Describing the methods

- Describing and discussing the results

- Conclusions and future directions

- Working on transitions

- How to conclude your presentation

Unit 4: After graduation: what next?

- Identifying your career goals

- Preparing for a job interview

- Writing your CV

- Writing a cover letter

- Applying for a scholarship

Methodological approach

Planning and conducting experiments

Based on the project proposal submitted in the previous semester, students should be able to plan and undertake an independent critical investigation as a final-year project in forensic biological sciences. They should systematically identify relevant theories and concepts, relate them to appropriate methodologies and evidence, apply suitable techniques and draw appropriate conclusions. Students should work independently and understand the purpose and possible outcomes of each experiment they conduct.

Writing the dissertation

At the end of the project, students must write a dissertation covering all details, including the objective, methodology, results, discussion and future work. They may aim to publish their research findings in a peer-reviewed journal and may apply for a patent if the findings have application-oriented outcomes.